Saurabh Chowdhury writes from an anthropological perspective to discuss the entanglements between evolutionary biological variations and modern sociocultural prejudices.
Over millions of years, the human body has evolved with a wide range of variations. It is a result of complex and continuous evolutionary, biological and historical processes, spreading human civilisations across the face of earth. The range of variations that the human body produces helps to order and adapt to new environments and specialise in occupying certain territories and geographies. Such variations include skin colour, dietary preferences, body types and natural immunity among others that over the years have helped the human body to adapt and inhabit this planet.
Our perception of the human body is primarily derived from the separation of anatomy (structure of organs) from physiology (functions performed by organs), and the body is seen as a machine (Gilbert, 2008). The WHO defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1946). However, this definition is criticised for its inability to capture the much recent chronic diseases and illnesses caused genetically (Machteld, et al., 2011). The human body is not perfect. Rather, it is a result of years of adaptation to environments and selection pressures. It is the cumulative result of multiple, simultaneously occurring factors, realised over layers of time and space.
Evolution is an ongoing process and the human body continues to adapt to its environment through variations. Some communities belonging to certain parts of the world are identified with a specific variation which can be prejudiced, stereotypical and discriminatory. For instance, skin colour and the concept of race evolved into a full-blown system of legitimised discriminatory practices despite the fact that it is a variation of the human body that evolved over time. We ignore, or perhaps are unaware of, the fact that variations in the human body, like skin colour among others, occur naturally over long time. Instead of treating the human body as a machine, the complexities and imperfections must be understood and acknowledged in the wake of the modern lifestyle. This essay provides an anthropological perspective on some variations of the human body that have assumed social, political and cultural significance in the modern world.
Variations in Skin Colour
Skin colour and racism has a significant history in shaping the modern world. It continues to perform in discrete ways from a significant social and political pedestal. However, the fact that skin colour is a natural variation of the human body, is often forgotten. Skin colour allows the human body to regulate folate, and melanin reserves are essential for synthesising vitamins B and D. The human body needs sunlight to build folate reserves, a source of vitamin B, which is essential for fertility and foetal development. Over-exposure to sunlight harms the skin by neutralizing the chemicals present to synthesise vitamin D essential for calcium absorption and maintaining immunity (Jablonski and Chapin 2002). The human body regulates the amount of sunlight it receives by producing melanin, a dark pigment found in the skin, which is also known as natural sunscreen, that neutralizes the UV rays and protects the body against the harmful effects of exposure to sunlight. Thus, longer exposure to sunlight leads to higher levels of melanin corresponding to darker skin while inadequate exposure to sun leads to lower levels of melanin corresponding to lighter skin. Communities living in parts of the world with higher exposure to the sun, i.e., closer to the equator, have higher levels of melanin and darker skin, while those living closer to the poles, with limited exposure to sunlight, have lighter skin to allow absorption of sunlight to build adequate folate reserves in the body. Thus, skin colour helps the body to adapt to a range of climatic and environmental conditions which is essential for survival and fecundity.
Prevalence of Lactose Intolerance
Another common variation of the human body is lactose intolerance. This too is closely linked to helping certain communities survive specific environmental and social conditions that they are exposed to. Lactose tolerance is common among communities of Europe, Asia and Africa with only a third of the world’s population able to digest lactose (Swagerty et al. 2002). Humans are born with the ability to digest lactose and milk. With age, the body loses the ability to produce lactase, the enzyme that helps to digest and synthesise lactose, the dominant sugar found in milk. However, it is common among some communities in Europe, parts of Africa, the Americas, and central Asia, to carry this ability into adulthood. Interestingly, these communities share a common heritage; most of them are pastoral communities. Since pastoralists move with their heard of livestock that typically include cows, sheep, camels and goats, animals that produce milk fit for human consumption, pastoral communities tend to become lactose tolerant as milk is part of their traditional diets. Over the past 20,000 years, these communities developed a genetic mutation allowing them to produce the enzyme lactase as adults (Thompson 2012). Adding milk and milk products to their everyday diet made it nutritious and helped them survive the frequent and deadly famines common in the pre-modern era. Lactose tolerance allowed pastoral communities to travel long distances in search of pastures and survive harsh environments by maintaining traditional ways of life. This advantageous trait was genetically passed on to future generations, which ensures survival and fecundity of the population. Lactose tolerance ceases to be an advantage in the modern world however it continues to affect dietary preferences of people across the world.
Sickle Cell Trait and Malaria resistance
African-American communities residing in North America are frequently diagnosed with Anaemia caused by a genetic mutation known as the sickle-cell trait. This is closely linked to the history of (forced) migration from parts of Africa endemic to malaria. The sickle-cell trait makes certain communities genetically prone to anaemia that damages red blood cells and impairs the body from producing haemoglobin and blood (‘What Is Sickle Cell Trait?’ 2024). African Americans and certain south Asian communities are at high risk of this genetic mutation. Geneticist Tony Allison was the first to point to an uncanny correlation of the sickle-cell trait with areas endemic to malaria in southern and sub-Saharan Africa. His research revealed that communities living in malaria prone areas commonly had the sickle cell trait that makes them immune to the malarial parasite. Allison concluded that the sickle cell trait provides natural immunity and resistance against malaria (Allison, 1954). The sickle cell trait is a response to malaria, passed down the generation among populations living in malaria prone areas. However, as these communities move out of their traditional ecological niches, the genetic mutations do cease to be advantageous increasing the risk of other forms of immune deficiency.
The ‘Thrifty-gene’
Thrifty gene refers to a genetic mutation that allows the body to store excess fat to survive times of scarcity which is undesirable in the modern era. Obesity is a chronic illness in modern industrialised societies across the world (WHO 2025). In palaeolithic times, all humans were hunter gatherers that travelled long distances for food and resources, and they had to survive long periods without it. Food was scarce and a serious constraint to survival and fecundity. Those able to eat as much food as possible, whenever possible, were at an evolutionary advantage. Some individuals developed the ability to store excess fat in their bodies, known as the thrifty gene, that allowed them to survive scarcity. Eventually, it became a genetic mutation that was passed down as a desired characteristic of the human body. However, as the world modernised, humans shifted from traditional hunter-gatherer existence to modern civilisations. Almost instantly, food was no longer scarce, whereas the human body remained that of the hunter-gatherer. The mismatch between the pre-historic human body living a modern lifestyle resulted in chronic obesity. Palaeolithic humans consumed less calories than we do today, drank lots of water, and had a high level of energy expenditure through physical activities, all of which are missing in our modern lifestyle. The ability to store fat in the body is a disadvantage in the modern world. Obesity is closely followed by other chronic degenerative diseases like diabetes, hypertension and atherosclerosis, known as the ‘diseases of civilisation’ (Eaton et. al. 1988), unknown in human history, increasing mortality and is undesirable for the human body.
Conclusion
Discrimination on the basis of biological variations of the human body is a modern socio-cultural phenomenon. Variations in the body are a product of complex and continuing processes that fulfils the basic, innate evolutionary desire to grow and spread as a species. However, the Anthropocene is marked by ‘othering’ and a desire to control, extract and consume. The ability to separate ‘self’ from ‘other’ has found new opportunities in biological variations, like skin colour and obesity, that exclude communities, discriminate against them and carve out new identities. As a result, the history and genealogy of biological variations are overlooked, allowing humans to differentiate, discriminate and stereotype each other on the basis of race, body type and cultures among others.
Societies and cultures evolve in relations to the environment they inhabit. Not only do variations in human body allow societies to survive different conditions, but humans also adapt and foster their behaviour based on the conditions they encounter. Human societies are known to have diverse forms of relations with land and landscape. Over time, civilisations and societies developed practices, beliefs and relations to the landscapes they inhabit not only to survive specific environmental conditions but also thrive in them. Specialised skills, knowledge and wisdom are handed down over generations for societies to continue inhabiting the landscapes that they belong.
Modern and industrialised lifestyle has homogenised our perceptions of variations in the human body. Enlightenment, industrial revolution and colonialism developed the orientalist (Said 1977) perception of cultures, people and civilisations outside of Europe. Orientalism created a new kind of ‘othering’. Variations of the human body were used to discriminate against communities. Modern, industrialised societies obscure the importance of genetic and biological variations of the human body, promoting a lifestyle dependent on resource extraction, commodification and consumption. Development is defined and imposed based on growth – growth in consumption implies progress and development. Modernity pushes a structured homogenous lifestyle where biological, historical and cultural variations are undesirable. In light of the history of biological variations of the human body, we are left with the question – how can we be aware, inclusive and appreciate the diversity among us?
About the author
Saurabh Chowdhury (he/him) a researcher and practitioner exploring human-nature relationships through forests and livelihoods while co-researching with rural communities in co-creating (also reclaiming) sustainable livelihood opportunities, with experience in working in remote rural areas with local Adivasi communities. He is currently a PhD student in Social Anthropology in at the University of Calgary.
References
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